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Article History

Received: 8 January 2026

Accepted: 16 March 2026

First Online: 19 March 2026

Declarations

:

: This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was obtained from the College of Medicine Research Ethics Committee (COMREC), Kamuzu University of Health Sciences, Malawi (approval number U.05/21/3321). Additional permissions were granted by the hospital director and the laboratory manager. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants, who were assured of privacy and confidentiality. Participants were informed about access to their test results, and those who tested positive were referred for appropriate clinical care and counselling in accordance with national guidelines.

: Not applicable.

: One of the editors for this special issue, Isaac Thom Shawa, PhD, is a contributing author on this manuscript. Therefore, we request that he be excluded from the review process. All other authors declare no competing interests.