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Article History

Received: 20 December 2025

Accepted: 10 April 2026

First Online: 17 April 2026

Declarations

:

: The study received ethical approval from the Medical and Health Sciences Ethical Review Board, University of Khartoum, Sudan, on September 4, 2023. Additionally, the study was also supported by the prospective state ministries of health in Sudan. Informed written consent was obtained from all subjects and/or their legal guardians prior to participation. Study participation was voluntary. To ensure respondent privacy, all datasets were fully de-identified; specifically, all direct identifiers, including names and residential addresses, were removed prior to analysis

: Not applicable

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: NIHR Global Health Research Group on Digital Diagnostics for African Health Systems Waleed M. A. Jebreel 1 , Muzamil M. Abdel Hamid 1 , Abdelrahim O. Mohamed 2 , Fahad A. Elnour 3 , Martin Chamai 4,22 , Kenny Malpartida-Cardenas 5,6 , Jesus Rodriguez-Manzano 5,6,7 , Aubrey J. Cunnington 8,9 , François Kiemde 10 , Lindsay B. Stewart 11 , Pantelis Georgiou 5,12 , Halidou Tinto 10 , Annette Erhart 13 , Ivana Pennisi 5,6,14 , Umberto D’Alessandro 13 , Dimbintsoa Rakotomalala Robinson 13,14 , Linda E. Amoah 15 , Mamadu Baldeh 13 , Azumah Abdul-Tawab 16 , Jamal-Deen Abdulai 17 , Mohammed Abumanga 3 , Jane Achan 18 , Darlington A. Akogo 19 , Angelina A. Amengu 20 , Tochukwu D. Anyaduba 6 , Emilia A. Udofia 21 , Gordon A. Awandare 4,22 , Frances B. da-Costa Vroom 23 , Leonard Baatiema 24 , Kevin Baker 6,18,25 , Fatou Baldeh 13,26 , Julie Balen 13,26 , Jake Baum 27 , Weston Baxter 20 , Craig Bonnington 18 , Salome A. Bukachi 28,29 , Céire E. Costelloe 30,31 , Luc P. de Witte 32 , Samuel Duodu 4,22 , Francis Dzabeng 4,17 , Joe Fitchett 33 , Sahar Gamil 2 , Sebastian S. Hachizovu 34 , Prudence Hamade 18 , Jethro A. Herberg 8,9 , Jean-Bertin Kabuya 34 , Flavia K. Bawa 4,22 , Myrsini Kaforou 8,9 , Dennis O. Laryea 16 , Michael Levin 8,9 , Christine Manyando 34 , Shola K. Molemodile Dele-Olowu 24 , Nicolas Moser 5,6,12 , Sydney Mwanza 35 , Erick Odoyo 36 , Patience Ofosuhemaa 37 , Lucy C. Okell 38 , Abubakr Omer 2 , Francesca M. Piffer 8 , Talya Porat 20 , Anthony W. Sifuna 39 , Maria Suau Sans 18 , Faiza U. Bawah 17,40 , Effua Usuf 13 , Alfred E. Yawson 41 , Shunmay Yeung 42 , & Asadu Sserwanga 18 . 1 Institute of Endemic Diseases, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan. 2 Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan. 3 Patients Helping Fund, Khartoum, Sudan. 4 West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana. 5 Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, London, UK. 6 ProtonDx, Translation & Innovation Hub, Imperial College London, London, UK. 7 The Fleming Initiative, Imperial College London and Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK. 8 Section of Paediatric Infectious Disease, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, London, UK. 9 Centre for Paediatrics and Child Health, Imperial College London, London, UK. 10 Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé, Clinical Research Unit of Nanoro, Nanoro, Burkina Faso. 11 Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK. 12 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK. 13 MRC Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Fajara, The Gambia. 14 Clinical Research Department, Faculty of Infections and Tropical Disease, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK. 15 Immunology Department, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana. 16 Disease Surveillance Department, Ghana Health Service, Accra, Ghana. 17 Department of Computer Science, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana. 18 Malaria Consortium, London, UK. 19 minoHealth AI Labs, Accra, Ghana. 20 Dyson School of Design Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK. 21 Department of Community Health, University of Ghana Medical School, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana. 22 Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana. 23 Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana. 24 Department of Health Policy, Planning and Management, School of Public Health, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana. 25 Department of Global Public Health, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden. 26 School of Nursing, Midwifery, Allied and Public Health, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, UK. 27 The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. 28 Institute of Anthropology, Gender and African Studies, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya. 29 Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, UK. 30 Health Informatics, Division of Clinical Studies, Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK. 31 Department of Primary Care and Public Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK. 32 The Hague University of Applied Sciences, The Hague, Netherlands. 33 Institut Pasteur de Dakar, Dakar, Sénégal. 34 Department of Public Health, National Health Research and Training Institute, Ndola, Zambia. 35 Department of Biomedical Sciences, National Health Research and Training Institute, Ndola, Zambia. 36 Department of Biological Sciences, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega, Kenya. 37 Health Promotion Division, Ghana Health Service, Accra, Ghana. 38 MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, UK. 39 Department of Medical Biochemistry, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega, Kenya. 40 Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana. 41 Office of the Provost, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana. 42 Clinical Research Department, Faculty of Infections and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK.