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Article History

Received: 6 January 2026

Accepted: 26 May 2026

First Online: 6 June 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the Institutional Review Board of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA) and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC, Boston, MA, USA). Access to the MIMIC-IV database was approved after completion of the required training (Certification No. 61,424,658). Since the database is de-identified, the requirement for individual patient consent was waived.

Human Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations: Not applicable, as this study was a secondary analysis of an open, de-identified database (MIMIC-IV).

Consent for publication: Not applicable.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.