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Authors
Ngmenbelle, David https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8485-0170
Nimirkpen, Stephen
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Article History
Received: 2 April 2026
Accepted: 20 July 2026
First Online: 25 July 2026
Declarations
Ethical approval: The 2022 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (GDHS) dataset used in this study is fully anonymized and contains no personal identifiers such as names, addresses, or contact information. No direct interaction with human participants occurred. The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval for the present analysis was not required because it was based exclusively on de-identified secondary data. The 2022 GDHS protocol received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board of ICF and the Ghana Health Service Ethics Review Committee. Permission to access and use the dataset was obtained through the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) Program, and authorization to download the data for analysis was granted on 2 February 2026.
Consent to participate: Not applicable.
Competing interest: The authors declare no competing interests.
