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Authors
Lima, Agostinho Viana
Kikoyo, Joachim Nsubuga
Nkala, Babongile
Dlamini, Faith
Shabalala, Fortunate
Carratala-Castro, Lucia
Ehrlich, Joanna
Hermans, Sabine
Kay, Alexander
Ssengooba, Willy
Mandalakas, Anna
Lange, Christoph
Acácio, Sozinho
Munguambe, Khátia
Cossa, Hermínio
Garcia-Basteiro, Alberto L.
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Djive, Helder
Cossa, Otilia
Mudumane, Benilde Benilde
Mambuque, Edson
Cebola, Farida
Rungo, Jorcelina
Junior, Alberto Bila
Gomes, Neide
Cumbe, Miguel
Munguambe, Shilzia
Fonseca, Lee Joao
Bramugy, Justina
Magul, Katia
Nassolo, Maria
Kasule, George
Sekkadde, Moorine
Mwachan, Patricia
Dlamini, Makhosazana
Dlamini, Gcinile
Dlamini, Nomathemba
Mthethwa, Nkulungwane
Gascua, Clement
Mulengwa, Durbbin
Kota, Nokwanda
Madison, Maia
Sibandze, Busizwe
Maphalala, Nontobeko
Shiba, Nosisa
Dude, Mbongeni
Ziyane, Mangaliso
Gillet, Olivier
López‑Varela, Elisa
Saavedra‑Cervera, Belén
Sanz, Sergi
Fernandez, Carlos
Katuwal, Sujan
Ang, Matthew
Seeger, Abigail
Vasiliu, Anca
DiNardo, Andrew
Mejia, Rojelio
Bacha, Jason
Vambe, Debrah
Musia, Collins
Kontsevaya, Irina
Dlamini, Sindisiwe
Maphalala, Gugu
Dlamini, Lindiwe
Dude, Sisi
Bariki, Mtafya
Ntinginya, Nyanda Elias
Komba, Lilian
Minga, Lwijisyo
Mwita, Lumumba
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
EDCTP2 Program and Global Health EDCTP3 (RIA2018D-2511-Stool4TB and 101145812)
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Article History
Received: 21 April 2026
Accepted: 29 July 2026
First Online: 6 August 2026
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate: This study was conducted according to the protocol, the Declaration of Helsinki, as well as other locally relevant regulations. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Manhiça Health Research Centre’s Institutional Review Board in Mozambique (Ref. CISM-014–2021), the Makerere University Biomedical Research and Ethics Committee in Uganda (Ref. SBS-2022-151), and the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology (UNCST Ref. SS1492ES). In Eswatini, approval was granted by the Eswatini Health and Human Research Review Board (Ref. EHHRRB026/2025). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. In case of illiteracy, participants were asked to provide their thumbprint in the companionship of an impartial witness who signed the consent form guaranteeing that respondents had been informed and voluntarily accepted to participate in the study. Participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study or stop the interview at any time and without any implication. The interviews were audio recorded with the permission, and according to the comfort of the respondents.
Consent for publication: No applicable.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
