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Article History

Received: 24 April 2026

Accepted: 20 August 2026

First Online: 1 September 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: This study used publicly available, de-identified histopathology image datasets and did not involve recruiting human participants, collecting new human tissue, or performing animal experiments. Therefore, no additional ethics approval or consent to participate was required for this retrospective secondary analysis. Ethical oversight for the original data collection is described in the corresponding source publications for the datasets used [10, 45].

Consent for publication: Not applicable. This manuscript does not contain identifiable personal data.

Use of artificial intelligence tools: The authors did not use artificial intelligence tools for manuscript writing, language refinement, data analysis, or image generation.

Author information: Not applicable.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.