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Article History

Received: 8 June 2025

Accepted: 6 November 2025

First Online: 5 December 2025

Declarations

:

: The MIMIC-IV database was established with the approval of the institutional review boards of both the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (Boston, MA) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Cambridge, MA), with a waiver of informed consent due to the use of de-identified health data. As this study involved a secondary analysis of publicly available and fully anonymized data, no additional ethical approval and consent to participate was required. Access to the MIMIC-IV database was granted to the corresponding author (L-H F) upon successful completion of the required online training course provided by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (certification number: 35897462). All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations, and the study was conducted in compliance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.

: Not Applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.