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Article History

Received: 22 July 2025

Accepted: 23 September 2025

First Online: 27 October 2025

Declarations

:

: Patients enrolled in the Observatoire Français de la Sclérose en Plaques (OFSEP) (registered to clinicaltrials.gov [NCT04028232] on 2019–07-22) provide written informed consent for participation. In accordance with the French legislation, the present study was approved by both the national data protection agency (Commission Nationale Informatique et Libertés [CNIL]; approval DR-2019–132) and the French expert committee for research, studies and evaluations on health (Comité d’expertise pour les recherches, les études et les évaluations dans le domaine de la santé [CEREES]; approval TPS 216966). This study adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki.

: Not applicable (no images or other personal or clinical details of participants that could compromise anonymity have been included).

: The author(s) would like to disclose the following. S. Wilson reports no disclosures relevant to the manuscript; E. Leray received consulting fees from Alexion, Merck, Novartis, Roche and Biogen, received payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from Sanofi Genzyme, and received support for attending meetings and/or travel from Sanofi Genzyme, all of the above unrelated to this work; Floriane Calocer received funding for the present research from the ARSEP foundation for a Postdoctoral Fellowship (payment to the institution), from the "Réseau Bas-Normand pour la SEP" for a Postdoctoral Fellowship (payment to the institution), from the Regional Council of Normandy (payment to the institution), from the Ecole Doctorale of Caen University for a training in LSHTD to conduct this research (payment to the institution). She received support for attending meetings and/or travel from the ARSEP Foundation (paid directly to herself, unrelated to this work); F. Rollot reports no disclosures relevant to the manuscript; M. Fauvernier reports no disclosures relevant to the manuscript; L. Remontet reports no disclosures relevant to the manuscript; L. Launay reports no disclosures relevant to the manuscript; S. Vukusic reports lecturing fees, travel grants and research support from Biogen, BMS-Celgene, Janssen, Merck, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi-Genzyme, Teva, all of the above unrelated to this work; E. Le Page reports "consulting or lectures, and invitations for national and international congresses from Biogen, Merck, Teva, Sanofi-Genzyme, Novartis Alexion, research support from Teva and Biogen academic research grants from PHRC and LFSEP, and travel grant from ARSEP Foundation, all of the above unrelated to this work; M. Debouverie reports no disclosures relevant to the manuscript; J. Ciron reports consulting, serving on a scientific advisory board, speaking, or other activities with Biogen, Novartis, Merck, Sanofi-Genzyme, Roche, Celgene-BMS, Alexion, all of the above unrelated to this work; A. Ruet reports consultancy fees, speaker fees, research grants (non-personal), and/or honoraria approved by the institutions from Novartis, Biogen Idec, Genzyme, Roche, and Merck, all of the above unrelated to this work; J. De Sèze reports consulting and lecturing fees, travel grants and unconditional research support from Biogen, Genzyme, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi Aventis and Teva Pharma, all of the above unrelated to this work; H; Zephir reports consulting or lectures, and invitations for national and international congresses from Biogen, Merck, Teva, Sanofi-Genzyme, Novartis and Bayer, as well as research support from Teva and Roche, and academic research grants from Académie de Médecine, LFSEP, FHU Imminent and ARSEP Foundation, all of the above unrelated to this work; T. Moreau reports fees as scientific adviser from Biogen, Medday, Novartis, Genzyme, Sanofi, all of the above unrelated to this work; D.A Laplaud served on scientific advisory boards for Alexion, BMS, Roche, Sanofi, Novartis, Merck, Janssen and Biogen, received conference travel support and/or speaker honoraria from Alexion, Novartis, Biogen, Roche, Sanofi, BMS, Teva Pharma and Merck and received research support from Fondation ARSEP, Fondation EDMUS and Agence Nationale de la Recherche, all of the above unrelated to this work; C. Lebrun-Frenay reports no disclosures relevant to the manuscript; P. Clavelou reports consulting and lecturing fees, travel grants and unconditional research support from Biogen, Janssen, Medday, Merck, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi-Genzyme and Teva Pharma, all of the above unrelated to this work; P. Labauge reports consulting and lecturing fees, travel grants and unconditional research support from Biogen, Genzyme, Novartis, Merck Serono, Roche, and Teva Pharma, all of the above unrelated to this work; E. Berger reports honoraria and consulting fees from Novartis, Sanofi Aventis, Biogen, Genzyme, Roche and Teva Pharma, all of the above unrelated to this work; J. Pelletier reports no disclosures relevant to the manuscript; O. Heinzlef reports consulting and lecturing fees from Bayer Schering, Merck, Teva, Genzyme, Novartis, Almirall and BiogenIdec, travel grants from Novartis, Teva, Genzyme, Merck Serono and Biogen Idec and research support from Roche, Merck and Novartis, all of the above unrelated to this work; E. Thouvenot reports consulting and lecturing fees, travel grants or unconditional research support from the following pharmaceutical companies: Actelion, Biogen, Celgene, Genzyme, Merck Serono, Novartis, Roche, Teva pharma; has a patent pending for biomarkers of neurodegeneration and neuroregeneration and a patent pending for a diagnosis method of multiple sclerosis (EP18305630.8), and received academic research support from PHRC and ARSEP Foundation, all of the above unrelated to this work; J-P. Camdessanché reports consulting and lecturing fees from Akcea, Alexion, Alnylam, Argenx, Biogen, Bristol Myers Squibb, CSL-Behring, Genzyme, Grifols, Laboratoire Français des Biotechnologies, Merck-Serono, Natus, Novartis, Pfizer, Pharmalliance, UCB Pharma, Teva, SNF-Floerger; travel grants from Akcea, Alexion, Alnylam, Argenx, Biogen, CSL-Behring, Genzyme, Grifols, Laboratoire Français des Biotechnologies, Merck-Serono, Natus, Novartis, Pfizer, Teva, SNF-Floerger, all of the above unrelated to this work; C; Arnaud reports no disclosures relevant to the manuscript; N. Derache reports no disclosures relevant to the manuscript; P. Branger reports no disclosures relevant to the manuscript; L. Guittet reports no disclosures relevant to the manuscript; G. Defer received research grants (paid to institution) from Biogen, Merck Serono, Novartis, Sanofi Genzyme; payment for speaker honoraria from Biogen, Merck Serono, Novartis, Sanofi Genzyme, Teva Pharmaceuticals, BMS; funding for travel from Biogen, Merck Serono, Novartis, Sanofi Genzyme, Teva Pharmaceuticals; and personal compensation for scientific advisory boards from Biogen, Merck Serono, Novartis, Sanofi Genzyme, Teva Pharmaceuticals, and BMS, all of the above unrelated to this work; O. Dejardin reports no disclosures relevant to the manuscript.