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Article History

Received: 12 November 2025

Accepted: 14 January 2026

First Online: 27 January 2026

Declarations

:

: This study was a secondary analysis of publicly available, de-identified patient data from the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care IV (MIMIC-IV, version 3.1) database. The creation and use of the MIMIC-IV database were approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Protocol Number: 0403000206). As the data are fully de-identified in compliance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) privacy standards, the requirement for ethical approval and individual informed consent for this specific retrospective analysis was formally waived by the MIT IRB. Researcher Yucheng Li completed the required Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI program) certification for database access (CITI Record ID: 57240237).The research was conducted in strict accordance with the ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects as outlined in the World Medical Association’s Declaration of Helsinki. All analyses adhered to the data use policies of the MIMIC-IV database. No identifiable patient information was accessed during the study.

: All authors agree to publish.

: The authors declare no competing interests.