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Article History

Received: 28 November 2024

Accepted: 31 March 2025

First Online: 8 April 2025

Declarations

:

: This study and all methods involved were performed in accordance with the ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects, stipulated within the World Medical Association (WMA) declaration of Helsinki. This study was reviewed and approved by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Institutional Review Board (IRB) protocol number #6606, the Joint Clinical Research Center IRB, and the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology (UNCST), following 45 C.F.R. part 46; 21 C.F.R. part 56.Consent to participate in the surveillance was waived by both IRBs (JCRC and CDC) because the surveillance involves no more than minimal risk to the participants. However, IRB-approved written informed consent was obtained for photographs of newborns with birth defects from their mothers or legal guardians.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: The findings and conclusions are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the funding agencies.