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Article History

Received: 28 July 2025

Accepted: 9 December 2025

First Online: 23 February 2026

Declarations

:

: This study used only publicly available and fully anonymized histopathology images from the Breast Histopathology Images dataset hosted on Kaggle. No new human samples were collected, and the authors did not have access to any identifiable patient information. According to BMC Cancer and Springer Nature policies, research using open-access, de-identified datasets does not require ethical approval from an institutional review board or informed consent from participants. Therefore, ethical approval and consent to participate are not applicable for this study.

: Not applicable. The dataset contains no identifiable individual data.

: The authors declare no competing interests.