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Authors
Byakwaga, Helen
Semeere, Aggrey
Wenger, Megan
Freeman, Esther
Laker-Oketta, Miriam
Rotich, Elyne
Mushi, Beatrice P.
Ssemakadde, Matthew
Muwando, Hilda
Mwine, Bronia
Ayanga, Racheal
Lagat, Celestine
Collier, Sigrid
Illonga, Zainab
Lukande, Robert
Kadama-Makanga, Philippa
Ibrahim, Pendo
Chemutai, Linda
Maurer, Toby
Kasozi, Charles
Muyindike, Winnie
Mmbaga, Elia
Glidden, David V.
Kiprono, Samson
Wools-Kaloustian, Kara
Kambugu, Andrew
Martin, Jeffrey
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
National Institutes of Health (K43 TW011987)
National Institutes of Health (U01AI069911)
National Institutes of Health (U54 CA254571)
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Article History
Received: 10 February 2026
Accepted: 19 August 2026
First Online: 29 August 2026
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate: Ethics approval was obtained from the following institutional review boards: in Kenya, from Moi University Research Ethics Committee (REC) ─ (Reference: IREC/2020/237); in Tanzania, from the National Institute for Medical Research (Reference: NIMR/HQ/R.8a/Vol. IX/4039); and in Uganda, from the Makerere University College of Health Sciences School of Biomedical Sciences Higher Degrees REC (Reference: SBS-HDREC-495). The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and all applicable local regulations and institutional guidelines governing research involving human participants. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants.
Consent for publication: Not applicable.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
