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Article History

Received: 3 June 2024

Accepted: 31 August 2025

First Online: 13 November 2025

Declarations

:

: We received ethical approval from the Stanford University Institutional Review Board, IRB number 349 (Panel: 2), protocol ID 24030. And this Stanford approval was the IRB of record. We carefully explained the goal and nature of the study. Since most caregivers could not read or write, we received oral consent for their participation in the study and their children’s involvement. Considering the communities’ perspectives, we concluded that symbolic compensation was more ethical than monetary compensation. Therefore, we compensated participants by photographing them and their children, and these photographs were given to them after their participation. This non-monetary compensation fostered inclusion and helped us avoid the perception that funds were unequally distributed in the communities. Even community members who did not participate in the study were photographed if they asked for it. Participants’ identities were anonymized during data analysis.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.