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Article History

Received: 15 February 2024

Accepted: 2 September 2025

First Online: 13 October 2025

Declarations

:

: Adolescents participated voluntarily in a longitudinal research program with parental consent, after receiving comprehensive information translated into the language spoken at home, in all 32 languages other than Swedish. If parents did not opt out on behalf of their child, he or she was given the choice to participate or to opt out of the whole program. In this way informed consent was obtained from all subjects and their legal guardians. The adolescents were also free to participate or abstain from participation in each data collection. The research program and data collection details were approved by the Regional Research Review Board in Gothenburg (No. 362 − 13; 2013-09-25) and with amendments approved for Wave 2 (2014-05-20), Waves 3–4 (2015-09-02), Wave 5 (2017-07-25) and Wave 6 (2018-07-26). All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. The study did not carry out any experiment.

: Not applicable. No individual data are published.

: AH has a position at Lund University which is supported by the state-owned gambling operator of Sweden, Svenska Spel. He also has obtained research funding from Svenska Spel’s research council. AH, AG, SK and TS had previous funding from the research council of the Swedish state-owned retail monopoly of alcohol, Systembolaget. None of these organizations had any role in the present research. The other authors declare having no competing interests.