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Article History

Received: 3 May 2025

Accepted: 25 November 2025

First Online: 3 December 2025

Declarations

:

: All procedures were approved by the Mass General Brigham IRB. Written informed consent was provided by participants who were 18 years of age, as well as from parents of participants who were under 18 years of age, along with the participant’s written informed assent. The authors assert that all procedures contributing to this work comply with the ethical standards of the relevant national and institutional committees on human experimentation and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2008.

: Not applicable.

: Over the past three years, Dr. Pizzagalli has received consulting fees from Boehringer Ingelheim, Compass Pathways, Engrail Therapeutics, Neumora Therapeutics (formerly BlackThorn Therapeutics), Neurocrine Biosciences, Neuroscience Software, Sage Therapeutics, Sama Therapeutics, and Takeda; he has received honoraria from the American Psychological Association, Psychonomic Society and Springer (for editorial work) and from Alkermes; he has received research funding from the BIRD Foundation, Brain and Behavior Research Foundation, Dana Foundation, DARPA, Millennium Pharmaceuticals, NIMH and Wellcome Leap MCPsych; he has received stock options from Compass Pathways, Engrail Therapeutics, Neumora Therapeutics, and Neuroscience Software. Dr. Pizzagalli has a financial interest in Neumora Therapeutics, which has licensed the copyright to the probabilistic reward task through Harvard University. Dr. Webb has received consulting fees from King & Spalding law firm. Dr. Pizzagalli’s and Dr. Webb’s interests were reviewed and are managed by McLean Hospital and Mass General Brigham in accordance with their conflict of interest policies. No funding from these entities was used to support the current work, and all views expressed are solely those of the authors. The other authors declare no competing financial interests.