Document is current

Article History

Received: 19 May 2026

Accepted: 8 September 2026

First Online: 25 September 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: This secondary analysis used de-identified MIMIC-IV version 3.1 and eICU-CRD version 2.0 data. The collection of patient information and creation of MIMIC-IV were reviewed by the Institutional Review Boards of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (No. 0403000206) and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (No. 2001-P-001699/14), which approved the data-sharing initiative and granted a waiver of informed consent. All eICU-CRD tables were de-identified in accordance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act safe-harbor standard; Privacert (Cambridge, MA, USA) certified the re-identification risk as meeting that standard (HIPAA Certification No. 1031219-2). Access to both databases required completion of the applicable training and acceptance of the PhysioNet data use agreements. The datasets utilized in this investigation were accessed and downloaded after completion of the required human-research training (certificate ID 67231811). No additional ethics approval or participant consent was required for these secondary analyses of de-identified data.

Consent for publication: Not applicable because this manuscript contains no identifiable individual participant data.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.