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Article History

Received: 7 March 2023

Accepted: 20 September 2023

First Online: 4 October 2023

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: The views expressed are purely those of the authors and may not in any circumstance be regarded as stating an official position of the European Commission.

: The current study uses secondary PISA survey data provided by and freely downloadable from the OECD. We did not conduct any experiments.

: Not applicable.