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Article History

Received: 9 March 2024

Accepted: 9 October 2024

First Online: 18 October 2024

Declarations

:

: Ethical approval status for all sub-studies is provided below:1. People Who Use Drugs (PWUD). • Qualitative Sub-Study: This sub-study has received approval from the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health’s research ethics board (# 2023/088).• Quantitative Sub-Study: This sub-study will rely on secondary data, conforming to the ethical guidelines for consent outlined in the Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (TCPS 2), article  2.2. This approach has received approval from the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health’s research ethics board.2. Police and the Criminal Justice System.• Qualitative Sub-Study: This sub-study has been approved by both Simon Fraser University (30001251) and the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (# 2023/109) research ethics boards.• Quantitative Sub-Study: This sub-study will rely on secondary data, conforming to the ethical guidelines for consent outlined in the Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (TCPS 2), article 2.2. This approach has received approval from the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health’s research ethics board.3. General Public.• This sub-study has been approved by the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health’s research ethics board (# 2023/173).4. Health Services System.• This sub-study has been approved by the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health’s research ethics board (REB# 2023/169).5. Economic impacts:• This sub-study will rely on data that have been sourced from publicly available sources or from study sources with previous ethical approval.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.Dr. Bernard Le Foll has obtained funding from Pfizer Inc. (GRAND Awards, including salary support) for investigator-initiated projects, from Indivior for a clinical trial sponsored by Indivior, in-kind donations of cannabis products from Aurora Cannabis Enterprises Inc. and study medication donations from Pfizer Inc. (varenicline for smoking cessation) and Bioprojet Pharma. He was also provided a coil for a Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation study from Brainsway and has obtained industry funding from Canopy Growth Corporation (through research grants handled by the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health and the University of Toronto), Bioprojet Pharma, Alcohol Countermeasure Systems, Alkermes and Universal Ibogaine. Lastly, Dr. Le Foll has received in kind donations of nabiximols from GW Pharmaceuticals for past studies funded by Canadian Institutes for Health Research and National Institutes of Health. He has participated in a session of a National Advisory Board Meeting (Emerging Trends BUP-XR) for Indivior Canada and is part of Steering Board for a clinical trial for Indivior. He has been consultant for Shinogi. He is supported by the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Waypoint Centre for Mental Health Care, a clinician-scientist award from the department of Family and Community Medicine of the University of Toronto, and a Chair in Addiction Psychiatry from the department of Psychiatry of University of Toronto. All of which is outside the scope of this work.Dr. Dan Werb is a co-founder of DoseCheck Technologies Ltd, a commercial entity developing a mobile drug checking technology, which is outside the scope of this work.Dr. Julie Bruneau has received a research grant from Gilead sciences and is in an advisory role for Gilead sciences, Abbvie and Cepheid, which is outside of the scope of this work.Dr. Elaine Hyshka’s participation in this research was supported in part thanks to funding from the Canada Research Chairs Program.