Updates are available Correction dated 2025-12-09

Article History

Received: 13 November 2024

Accepted: 3 March 2025

First Online: 12 March 2025

Change Date: 4 December 2025

Change Type: Update

Change Details: The original online version of this article was revised: the Editors received correspondence raising concerns that parts of the original text implied a causative link between the variables under investigation. The correspondence noted that the data analyzed in the study are observational in nature, and that the analyses are therefore only able to demonstrate association rather than causation. Having been made aware of these concerns, the authors have revised parts of the text to clarify that, given the observational nature of the data, the analyses cannot prove causation. At the request of the Editors, additional content has also been added to the article to provide context and clarity on the source and limitations of the data on mask usage.

Change Date: 9 December 2025

Change Type: Correction

Change Details: A Correction to this paper has been published:

Change Details: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-25855-7

Declarations

:

: Not applicable.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.