Funding for this research was provided by:
First 5 Los Angeles (07030)
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (77239)
Article History
Received: 13 June 2024
Accepted: 18 August 2025
First Online: 27 August 2025
Declarations
:
: The authors declare no competing interests.
: Not applicable.
: The data described in the manuscript will not be made available because they include confidential administrative data of the WIC program. The code book and analytic code will be made available upon request.
: All data collected for this study was done with Institutional Review Board approval following a full review from the California Health and Human Services Agency Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects, acting in its capacity as an institutional review board.
: Oral and written informed consent were obtained for respondents, the parent or legal guardian of children included in each study, for telephone and online surveys, respectively.