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Authors
Oshio, Takashi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8142-5585
Sugiyama, Kemmyo https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5110-2216
Ashida, Toyo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0334-121X
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (23K01419)
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Article History
Received: 25 August 2025
Accepted: 24 November 2025
First Online: 29 November 2025
Declarations
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: This study used data from a nationwide panel survey, “The Longitudinal Survey of Middle-aged and Older Adults,” conducted annually by the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) since 2005. Japan’s Statistics Law requires that surveys be reviewed from statistical, legal, and ethical perspectives. Survey data were obtained from the MHLW with official permission; therefore, ethical approval or consent to participate was not required, according to national legislation. This study adhered to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.
: Not applicable.
: The authors declare no competing interests.
: Not applicable.
