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Article History

Received: 27 November 2025

Accepted: 9 January 2026

First Online: 29 January 2026

Declarations

:

: Approval and participant consent were not required for this study, as it utilized secondary data that was publicly available through the DHS Program. Additionally, ethical clearance for the BDHS was initially granted by the ICF Institutional Review Board and the NIPORT Review Committee. The highest ethical standards were employed throughout the study, which was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

: Not applicable. This manuscript does not contain any person’s data in any form (including individual details, images, or videos) that would require consent for publication.

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: SDG Sustainable Development Goal.MDG Millennium Development Goal.LMIC Low- and middle-income countries.BDHS Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey.AOR Adjusted odds ratio.CrI Credible interval.WAIC Widely applicable information criterion.LOOIC Leave-one-out information criterion.ANC Antenatal care.MMR Maternal mortality ratio.ICC Intraclass correlation.MOR Median odds ratio.PCV Proportional change in variance.Bulk ESS Bulk Effective Sample Size.Tail ESS Tail Effective Sample Size.