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Associations of self-reported smoking status, serum cotinine level and a composite indicator of smoke exposure with depressive symptoms in middle-aged and elderly U.S. individuals: a cross-sectional study based on the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005–2018

Crossref DOI link: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-026-26604-0

Published Online: 2026-02-13

Update policy: https://doi.org/10.1007/springer_crossmark_policy

Authors

Wang, Zi-Yi

Li, Yuan-Sheng

Meng, Fan-Shuo

Zhang, Yi

Zhou, Ji-Yuan
Funding

Funding for this research was provided by:

the National Natural Science Foundation of China ; the Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation; Hainan Province Science and Technology Special Fund (82173619; 2023A1515011242; ZDYF2025SHFZ046)
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Text and Data Mining valid from 2026-02-13

Version of Record valid from 2026-03-20
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Article History

Received: 28 August 2024

Accepted: 5 February 2026

First Online: 13 February 2026

Declarations

:

: The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by NCHS Research Ethics Review Board (ERB). Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.

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