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Article History

Received: 15 September 2025

Accepted: 23 February 2026

First Online: 28 February 2026

Declarations

:

: This study is based on secondary analysis of data from the Indonesia Family Life Survey Wave 5 (IFLS-5). This data collection protocol was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) of the RAND Corporation (Santa Monica, USA) and Universitas Gadjah Mada (Yogyakarta, Indonesia) with approval number: s0064-06–01-CR01. Written informed consent was obtained from all IFLS-5 participants by the original survey team. The IFLS-5 dataset is publicly available for research use through the RAND Corporation website following user registration and data-use agreement. Additional ethical clearance for the secondary use of this dataset was obtained from the Health Research Ethics Committee of Dr. Moewardi General Hospital, Indonesia (No. 790/IV/HREC/2025).

: The authors consent to the submission of this manuscript, including all text, figures, tables, and supplementary materials, to BMC Public Health. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript and agree to its publication.

: The authors declare no competing interests.