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Article History

Received: 18 October 2025

Accepted: 24 February 2026

First Online: 11 March 2026

Declarations

:

: This study is based entirely on secondary analysis of anonymised, publicly available data from the 2023 National Socioeconomic Survey (SUSENAS), administered by the Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS). No human participants were directly involved, no biological samples or tissues were collected, and no individual identifiers were used at any stage of the analysis. In accordance with Indonesian national regulations governing health research ethics (Government Regulation No. 39 of 1995 on Health Research and Development, and the Indonesian National Guidelines for Health Research Ethics), studies involving only the analysis of existing, publicly available, anonymised datasets are exempt from formal ethics committee review. This exemption was confirmed by the Health Research Ethics Committee, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Brawijaya, Indonesia. As the study used only pre-existing, anonymised, publicly available data with no direct contact with human participants, the requirement for individual informed consent to participate was waived by the Health Research Ethics Committee, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Brawijaya, Indonesia, in accordance with the aforementioned national regulations. Nonetheless, this study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.