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Article History

Received: 9 July 2025

Accepted: 30 April 2026

First Online: 14 May 2026

Declarations

:

: This study was based on secondary analysis of de-identified data obtained from five established longitudinal cohort studies. Ethical approval for each original cohort was obtained by the corresponding study institutions or committees. The Health and Retirement Study (HRS) was authorized by the National Institute on Aging and the Social Security Administration (NIA U01AG009740). The China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) was approved by the Peking University Institutional Review Board (IRB00001052-11015). The Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Max Planck Society. The English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA) was approved by the National Research and Ethics Service Committee South Central – Berkshire. The Mexican Health and Aging Study (MHAS) was approved by the National Institutes of Health/National Institute on Aging (NIH R01AG018016). All participants provided informed consent in the original cohort studies. No additional ethical approval was required.

: Not applicable. This manuscript does not contain any individual person’s data in any form, including personal details, images, or videos.

: The authors declare no competing interests.