Document is current

Article History

Received: 10 April 2026

Accepted: 13 July 2026

First Online: 15 July 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: This study analyzed de-identified public-use data from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS). CFPS data collection was approved by the Biomedical Ethics Review Committee of Peking University (IRB00001052-14010). As the present study used pre-existing, fully anonymized secondary data without any intervention on human participants, individual informed consent was not required, and no additional ethics review was necessary under applicable national guidelines. The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the 2013 Declaration of Helsinki.

Consent for publication: Not applicable.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.