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Article History

Received: 30 April 2026

Accepted: 21 July 2026

First Online: 25 July 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: HRS was approved by the Health Sciences and Behavioral Sciences Institutional Review Board of the University of Michigan. ELSA was approved by the London Multi-Centre Research Ethics Committee, the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery & Institute of Neurology Joint Research Ethics Committee, the Berkshire Research Ethics Committee, the NRES Committee South Central-Berkshire, the South Central-Berkshire Research Ethics Committee. SHARE was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Mannheim and the Ethics Council of the Max Planck Society. CHARLS was approved by Institutional Review Board at Peking University. KLoSA was approved by Institutional Review Board of Statistics Korea. This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. As it was a secondary analysis of publicly available data, no ethical approval was required.

Consent for publication: Not applicable.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.