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Article History

Received: 9 August 2025

Accepted: 2 June 2026

First Online: 9 June 2026

Declarations

:

: This study was conducted using data from the All of Us Research Program, in which all participants provided informed consent for the use of their electronic health records, survey responses, and biospecimens. All research procedures adhered to the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and were carried out within the secure All of Us Researcher Workbench. The All of Us Research Program operates under the oversight of NIH All of Us Institutional Review Board (IRB), which reviewed and approved all data collection and access procedures. This study was determined to be exempt (IRB # 814348) from additional IRB review due to the use of de-identified data.

: This manuscript does not contain any individual-level or identifiable personal data. All data used were de-identified and obtained from the All of Us Research Program under approved access protocols. Therefore, specific consent for publication is not applicable.

: Over the past three years, M.B.S. has received consulting fees from Aptinyx, atai Life Sciences, BigHealth, Biogen, Bionomics, Boehringer Ingelheim, Delix Therapeutics, EmpowerPharm, Engrail Therapeutics, Janssen, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Karuna Therapeutics, NeuroTrauma Sciences, Otsuka US, PureTech Health, Sage Therapeutics, and Roche/Genentech. He holds stock options in Oxeia Biopharmaceuticals and EpiVario. He has also received compensation for editorial roles, serving as Editor-in-Chief of Depression and Anxiety, Deputy Editor of Biological Psychiatry, and Co-Editor-in-Chief of Psychiatry at UpToDate, and serves on the scientific advisory boards of the Brain and Behavior Research Foundation and the Anxiety and Depression Association of America. J. Z., M. L. T., and A. D. M. declare no competing interests.