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Article History

Received: 7 April 2025

Accepted: 29 April 2026

First Online: 23 May 2026

Declarations

:

: The secondary data analyses were approved by the committee at City, University of London that considers medium-risk applications (ETH21220–299). The authors assert that all procedures contributing to this work comply with the ethical standards of the relevant national and institutional committees on human experimentation and with the Helsinki Declaration of1975, as revised in 2008.

: Consent to publish this paper has been gained from Women’s Aid Federation of England (WAFE), in accordance with the process stipulated in the legal data sharing agreement with City St. George’s, University of London.

: The authors declare no competing interests.