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Article History

Received: 26 March 2026

Accepted: 23 July 2026

First Online: 30 July 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: Fecal samples were collected from calves by qualified veterinarians at the Adami Tulu Agricultural Research Center (ATARC) using standard, non-invasive veterinary diagnostic procedures. Permission and informed consent to use the privately owned animals for sample collection were obtained verbally from the farm owners before commencement of the study. This study was conducted in accordance with the institutional and national guidelines for the care and use of animals. Since the research was limited to the in vitro evaluation of botanical extracts against bacterial isolates obtained through non-invasive sampling and involved no experimental manipulation, distress, or invasive procedures on live animals, the protocol was reviewed and deemed exempt from formal animal ethics approval by the Adami Tulu Agricultural Research Center Institutional Review Committee.

Consent for publication: Not applicable.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.