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Article History

Received: 25 March 2026

Accepted: 18 August 2026

First Online: 25 August 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: This study followed the guidelines set by the Ethiopian Ministry of Science and Higher Education from the year 2019. There was no need for approval or informed consent because the study used only standard bacterial strains that are available from the ATCC. These bacterial strains were obtained from the Ethiopian Public Health Institute. These strains are not seen as human subjects research. Plant samples were gathered from places that're easy to reach such as roadsides and areas where people keep their animals. Verbal approval was given by the leaders of the Kebele. This was done according to Ethiopian Proclamation Number 482/2006. This proclamation deals with access, to resources and the rights of communities. The plants collected were not rare or endangered. The plants were gathered for research. No people were involved in any part of this study.

Consent for publication: This paper does not include any personal data or images of any identifiable individuals. Figures included in the manuscript illustrate laboratory procedures and experimental setups. In Figs. 1 and 2, where an individual is visible, written informed consent for publication of the image was obtained from the participant prior to submission. No personal or sensitive identifying information is disclosed.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.