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Authors
Li, Junming
Li, Jing
Zhao, Haiyan
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Medical Interdisciplinary Research and Reform Project of Kunming University of Science and Technology (KUST-KH2023052J)
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Article History
Received: 24 May 2025
Accepted: 13 October 2025
First Online: 22 December 2025
Declarations
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: This study received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board of The First People’s Hospital of Yunnan Province, with approval certificate number:2025-GN009. All procedures adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki (2013 revision). Written informed consent was waived for retrospective anonymized data under Article 21 of China’s Ethical Review Guidelines for Health Research Involving Humans, as the research utilized pre-existing de-identified imaging data and educational assessments without personal identifiers. For student participants, verbal consent was obtained prior to educational assessments, with opt-out rights maintained throughout the study. This procedure was explicitly approved by the ethics committee under the institutional educational research protocol. 3D-printed anatomical models underwent surface smoothing and landmark generalization to prevent potential patient identification.
: All authors reviewed the manuscript and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
: The authors declare no competing interests.
