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Article History

Received: 30 June 2025

Accepted: 20 November 2025

First Online: 8 December 2025

Declarations

:

: This study is a secondary analysis of de-identified data obtained from the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) database. The study protocol was reviewed by the Ethics Review Committee of the Institute of Medical Information, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, which waived the need for formal ethics approval for this specific study. The waiver was granted as the study falls under the exemption for research utilizing legally obtained, de-identified data from a public source, in accordance with the Measures for the Ethical Review of Life Science and Medical Research Involving Humans (issued by the National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China et al., February 18, 2023). All procedures performed in the original ADNI study involving human participants were in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki . The ADNI study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) of all participating clinical sites. Written informed consent was obtained from all individual participants or their authorized representatives included in the ADNI study.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.