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Article History

Received: 22 December 2025

Accepted: 19 June 2026

First Online: 8 July 2026

Declarations

:

: IMASIS-2 dataset (HMar): The secondary use of the IMASIS-2 dataset was approved by the Ethics Committee of Hospital del Mar (registration number 2023/11262). The Ethics Committee waived the requirement for informed consent because the study involved retrospective analysis of routinely collected clinical data processed for scientific research and public health purposes, in accordance with the European Union General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR; Regulation (EU) 2016/679), specifically Article 6(1)(e) and Article 9(2)(j), with appropriate safeguards as defined in Article 89(1). Given the retrospective and large-scale nature of the dataset, obtaining informed consent from all data subjects was deemed impracticable and disproportionate to the aims of the study. COVID-19 dataset (IIS La Fe): This study was approved by the Ethics Committee for Biomedical Research with Medicines of the University and Polytechnic La Fe Hospital of Valencia (registration number 2024-0484-1; approval date: May 29, 2024). In accordance with the Seventeenth Additional Provision of Spanish Organic Law 3/2018, which implements and complements the GDPR in Spain, the Ethics Committee determined that informed consent to participate was not required for this retrospective study. The work was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles embodied in the Declaration of Helsinki, which provides internationally recognised guidance on research involving human participants and human data and affirms the role of ethics committee review and oversight for human data use in research contexts.

: Not applicable.

: During the preparation of this work the author(s) used ChatGPT4/5 by OpenAI to improve readability and language of some of the paragraphs. After using this tool/service, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take(s) full responsibility for the content of the publication.

: The authors declare no competing interests.