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Article History

Received: 26 July 2024

Accepted: 2 June 2025

First Online: 1 September 2025

Declarations

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: The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by CHARLS was ethically approved by the Ethics Review Board of Peking University (approval number: IRB00001052-11015), and each respondent signed an informed consent form. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article. The datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository and accession number can be found at. The database is free and open to scholars worldwide.

: All the claims made by this article represent only the authors and do not necessarily represent the claims of the affiliated organizations or reviewers, editors and publishers. The publisher does not guarantee or endorse any product that may be evaluated by this article or any claim that may be made by its manufacturer.

: The authors declare no competing interests.