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Article History

Received: 3 July 2024

Accepted: 20 July 2025

First Online: 13 August 2025

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: Not applicable.

: This study is based on secondary analysis of anonymized data from the 2018 China Migrants Dynamic Survey (CMDS), which is publicly available to authorized researchers upon approval by the Migrant Population Service Center, National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants by the original data collectors. The Ethics Committee of the School of Economics, Shandong Technology and Business University reviewed the research protocol and confirmed that no additional ethical approval was required, as the study involved only de-identified, publicly available data. All procedures contributing to this work comply with the ethical standards of the relevant national and institutional committees on human research and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. All analyses were conducted in accordance with national regulations and institutional guidelines.