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Article History

Received: 28 November 2025

Accepted: 16 March 2026

First Online: 23 March 2026

Declarations

:

: This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. The analysis used secondary data sources. Informed consent to participate was obtained from participants at the time of original data collection where required. For the present secondary analyses, the requirement for additional informed consent was waived or deemed not applicable by the relevant institutional or regulatory authorities. In Australia, the 45 and Up Study has ethical approval from the University of New South Wales (UNSW) Human Research Ethics Committee. This study has received ethics approval from the UTS Human Research Ethics Committee (UTS HREC REF NO. ETH18-2507) and the NSW Population & Health Services Research Ethics Committee under reference number 2013/11/487. In Canada, participation in this project was authorized under Sect.  45 of Ontario’s Personal Health Information Protection Act (PHIPA) and does not require review by a Research Ethics Board. In Finland, ethical approval was from the ethical review board of the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare. In Spain, participation in this project was approved by Ethics Committee for Clinical Research in Aragon (2018-02-28, ref PI17/0411, Acta N 04/2018). Approval to access IDI data for New Zealand for this project was provided by Stats NZ (Ref: MAA2018-35). In the United States, the Institutional Review Boards at both the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and Brown University approved this study.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.