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Article History

Received: 26 March 2026

Accepted: 7 September 2026

First Online: 11 September 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: Ethical approval was obtained from Health Sciences University School Research Ethics Panel (application number SOC – 0325 − 013). All participants provided informed consent prior to participation. No identifying information was collected, and data were stored securely in accordance with GDPR requirements.

Consent for publication: Not applicable.

Competing interests: OT is an Associate Editor for BMC Health Service Research and the International Journal of Osteopathic Medicine. He is co-director of the Centre for Osteopathic Research and Leadership (CORaL). Receives fees for Journal editing, providing osteopathic clinical services; grants, non-financial support and travel reimbursement from University of Technology Sydney’s Faculty of Health - Australian Research Centre in Complementary and Integrative Medicine; speaking/lecture fees from Kookie Learning and Metropolia University of Applied Sciences. JDR reports financial support from Osteopathic Foundation; employment with National Council for Osteopathic Research; fees for providing osteopathic clinical services; grants, non-financial support and travel reimbursement from Osteopathy Europe; non-financial support and travel reimbursement from University of Technology Sydney’s Faculty of Health - Australian Research Centre in Complementary and Integrative Medicine; speaking/lecture fees from Kookie Learning and Metropolia University of Applied Sciences; and consulting/advisory fees from College of Health Sciences Fribourg. Co-director of the Centre for Osteopathic Research and Leadership (CORaL). GAM acknowledges non-financial support from the Faculty of Health at the University of Technology Sydney and holds a Visiting Fellowship at the Centre for Osteopathic Research and Leadership (CORaL). EG reports employment at Plymouth Marjon University; employment as an external examiner for Health Sciences University; and past employment with National Council for Osteopathic Research. SV has received income from private osteopathic practice and the delivery of continuing professional development for physical therapists. He reports employment with Health Sciences University. He serves on the executive committee of the Society for Back Pain Research. He is Editor in Chief of the International Journal of Osteopathic Medicine. He has received research funding from osteopathic organisations such as the General Osteopathic Council, The Osteopathic Foundation, Institute of Osteopathy, and the National Council for Osteopathic Research as well as from non-disciplinary grant making organisations. He is a member of the Centre for Osteopathic Research and Leadership (CORaL) BV reports employment at the University of Melbourne and Edith Cowan University; non-financial support and travel reimbursement from University of Technology Sydney’s Faculty of Health - Australian Research Centre in Complementary and Integrative Medicine; fees for providing osteopathic clinical services. Visiting Fellow of the Centre for Osteopathic Research and Leadership (CORaL).