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Article History

Received: 10 October 2025

Accepted: 11 May 2026

First Online: 21 May 2026

Declarations

:

: Ethical approval was granted by the ethics committees of Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin (EA1/225/19), and written consent was obtained from each participant prior to their inclusion in the study.

: Not applicable.

: UM, CS and RB had financial support from the Federal Joint Committee (G-BA) – Innovationsfonds for this trial (PRÄP-GO, 01NVF18024). CS received grants from the German Research Society (DFG), German Aerospace Center (DLR), Einstein Foundation Berlin, Federal Joint Committee (G-BA), Inner University Grants, Project Management Agency of DLR, Non-Profit Society Promoting Science and Education, European Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action, Dr. F. Köhler Chemie GmbH, Sintetica GmbH, Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur Föderung der Wissenschaften e.V., Stifterverband für die Deutsche Wirtschaft e.V. / Medtronic, Philips Electronic Nederland BV, Federal Ministry of Education and Research, The European Commission Horizon Europe, and personal fees from Georg Thieme Verlag as a book author, from Prothor, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Lynx Health Science GmbH for participation on a DSMB or advisory board, all outside the submitted work. CS holds several patents outside the submitted work. SJS received grants and non-financial support from Reactive Robotics GmbH (Munich, Germany), ASP GmbH (Attendorn, Germany), STIMIT AG (Biel, Switzerland), ESICM (Geneva, Switzerland), grants, personal fees, and non-financial support from Fresenius Kabi Deutschland GmbH (Bad Homburg, Germany), grants from the Innovationsfond of The Federal Joint Committee (G-BA) and the European Commission / European Union, personal fees from Springer Verlag GmbH (Vienna, Austria) for educational purposes and Advanz Pharma GmbH (Bielefeld, Germany), non-financial support from national and international societies (and their congress organizers) in the field of anesthesiology and intensive care medicine, outside the submitted work. Dr. Schaller holds stocks in small amounts from Alphabet Inc., Ascendis Pharma Inc., Bayer AG, and Siemens AG; these holdings have not affected any decisions regarding his research or this study. RB reports having received other research grants from the Gemeinsamer Bundesausschuss (G-BA – Federal Joint Committee) - Innovationsfonds, the European Commission, the World Health Organization and ECDC. He has further received personal compensation from the World Health Organization, German sickness funds (TK, vdek, GKV-Spitzenverband), the Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care, the Robert Bosch foundation, various providers (Helios Schwerin, Klinikum Dresden, Uniklinikum Ulm, Charité, Klinik am See) as well as pharmaceutical companies (Boehringer Ingelheim). All other authors declare to have no competing interests.