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Article History

Received: 17 February 2026

Accepted: 6 July 2026

First Online: 10 July 2026

Declarations

:

: This study is a secondary analysis of data from the UK Household Longitudinal Study (Understanding Society). The Understanding Society study received ethical approval from the University of Essex Ethics Committee for all main survey waves. The waves used in this study were covered by approvals granted on 17 December 2010 (Waves 3-5), 4 October 2016 (Waves 9-11), and Ethics Approval No. ETH2021-0015 (Wave 13). All procedures performed in UK Household Longitudinal Study data collection involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. All participants provided written informed consent before participation in each wave of data collection. No additional ethical approval was required for this secondary analysis of anonymized data.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.