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Authors
Xu, Wenxin
Sakal, Collin
Zhang, Wei
Chen, Tong
Wang, Congrong
Zhao, Qinpei
Li, Xinyue
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Noncommunicable Chronic Diseases-National Science and Technology Major Project (2023ZD0509206)
Hospital Matching Fund (sykyqd01801)
National Natural Science Foundation of China (82070913)
Key Discipline Project of the Hongkou District Health Commission (HKLCFC 202403)
Guangdong and Hong Kong Universities “1+1+1” Joint Research Collaboration Scheme, City University of Hong Kong Institute of Digital Medicine, the City University of Hong Kong internal grant (#7020213)
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Article History
Received: 15 October 2025
Accepted: 23 July 2026
First Online: 1 August 2026
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate: This study utilized anonymized, publicly available data from the ShanghaiT2DM dataset, which was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shanghai Fourth People’s Hospital and Shanghai East Hospital affiliated to Tongji University in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The informed consent was obtained from all participants. This study was approved by City University of Hong Kong Human and Artefacts Ethics Sub-Committee (approval number: HU-STA-00002077).
Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
