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Article History

Received: 2 June 2025

Accepted: 12 November 2025

First Online: 4 December 2025

Declarations

:

: All farms involved in this study adhered to established codes of good husbandry practices, ensuring that dromedaries were managed humanely and in accordance with national standards for animal welfare. The procedures carried out were performed exclusively for officially recognized zootechnical purposes and, therefore, fall outside the scope of Royal Decree 53/2013 (1 February), which governs the protection of animals used in scientific research and education in Spain. This exclusion is explicitly stated in Article 2, paragraph (d), of the Decree. In addition, informed consent was obtained from all private owners (Owner 1 to Owner 4) after they were fully briefed on the study’s aims, procedures, and implementation timeline, and they voluntarily agreed to the participation of their animals.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.