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Article History

Received: 24 January 2026

Accepted: 20 April 2026

First Online: 30 April 2026

Declarations

:

: All blood sampling procedures were performed as part of routine health monitoring and fitness assessment in client-owned horses. In accordance with European Directive 2010/63/EU and applicable Polish regulations on the protection of animals used for scientific or educational purposes, the procedures were classified as non-experimental clinical veterinary practices and therefore did not require ethical approval. Sampling was conducted by licensed veterinarians using standard aseptic techniques and handling practices designed to minimize stress and discomfort. A written statement confirming the non-experimental classification for the procedures conducted within the OPUS 21 project “Examining the response to exercise using a systems biology approach in racehorses” (National Science Centre, Poland; project no. 2021/41/B/NZ7/03548) was obtained from the competent local ethics committee at the Warsaw University of Life Sciences. Informed consent to participate from owners was obtained.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.