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Article History

Received: 26 April 2026

Accepted: 11 June 2026

First Online: 17 June 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: This study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and followed the ethical requirements for secondary analysis of de-identified public critical care datasets. This study used three publicly available databases: MIMIC-III-CareVue, MIMIC-IV, and the Northwestern ICU (NWICU) database, all of which are accessible through PhysioNet after completion of the required training and data use agreements. These databases contain de-identified patient information collected under appropriate institutional review board approval. The use of the MIMIC databases was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The NWICU database was released as a de-identified public dataset through PhysioNet under the applicable institutional approvals and data use requirements described by the database provider. As this study involved only retrospective analysis of de-identified publicly available data, no additional institutional ethics approval or informed consent was required. All investigators completed the required human research training and complied with the data use agreements before accessing the databases.

Consent for publication: Not applicable.

Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.