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Authors
Hamilton, William L.
Forster, Annie J.
Aniweh, Yaw
Asoala, Victor
Drury, Eleanor
Rockett, Kirk A.
Awandare, Gordon A.
Kwiatkowski, Dominic P.
Band, Gavin
Amenga-Etego, Lucas N.
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
National Institute for Health and Care Research
Wellcome Trust
Medical Research Council
Department for International Development
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Article History
Received: 19 February 2026
Accepted: 23 May 2026
First Online: 1 June 2026
Declarations
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: Ethical approval for the study was granted by the Navrongo Health Research Centre Institutional Review Board (NHRCIRB203). All participants or their guardians (as appropriate) were provided detailed information sheets and gave informed consent prior to enrolment. Further approval was granted by the Wellcome Sanger Institute’s Research Ethics Committee for the analysis of the samples. Sample collection was conducted by LNA, who anonymised the samples prior to making them available to the Wellcome Sanger Institute. All patient-identifiable data are securely stored by LNA and only non-patient identifiable were provided to the Wellcome Sanger Institute. The study complies with all relevant ethical regulations. This research was conducted collaboratively between researchers based at the University of Ghana, the Navrongo Health Research Centre (NHRC), the Wellcome Sanger Institute, and University of Oxford. Study conceptualisation, data analysis and interpretation, and authorship of publications were shared jointly between personnel based in Ghana and the UK.
: The authors declare no competing interests.
