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Article History

Received: 27 November 2025

Accepted: 26 July 2026

First Online: 6 August 2026

Declarations

Ethics: The study was exempt from a formal review and approval by the Ethics Committee of the University of St. Gallen in August 2025. Informed consent was obtained from all panelists before assessment. Neither patients nor the public were involved in the design, reporting or dissemination of this research project.

Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process: During the preparation of this work the authors used ChatGPT in order to optimize language and grammar. After using this tool/service, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the publication.

Competing interests: All authors are affiliated with the Centre for Digital Health Interventions (CDHI), a joint initiative of the Institute for Implementation Science in Health Care, University of Zurich, the Department of Management, Technology, and Economics at ETH Zurich, and the Institute of Technology Management and School of Medicine at the University of St. Gallen. CDHI is funded in part by CSS, a Swiss health insurer, the Swiss growth-stage investor MTIP, and the Austrian health provider Mavie Next. TK was also a co-founder of Pathmate Technologies, a university spin-off company that creates and delivers digital clinical pathways. However, neither CSS, Ma-vie Next, nor Pathmate Technologies were involved in this research. The manuscript has been read and approved for submission by all the authors.