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Article History

Received: 7 November 2025

Accepted: 26 July 2026

First Online: 5 August 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not applicable.

Consent for publication: Not applicable.

Use of artificial intelligence tools: Generative artificial intelligence tools were used solely to support language editing and improve clarity of expression during manuscript preparation. All content was reviewed and approved by the authors. During study selection, the software Rayyan was used to flag potential duplicate records based on automated similarity matching. All duplicates were subsequently reviewed and resolved manually by the reviewers, and no screening or data extraction decisions were automated.

Competing interests: Christoph Kowalski, Carmen Koko and Zining Yang declare that they are employees of the German Cancer Society. Patrick Martens and Eliane Kellen declare that they are employees of the Centre for Cancer Detection, which organises the population-based cancer screening programmes in Flanders, Belgium. Mari Nygård declares that she is employed by the Cancer Registry of Norway, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, which organises the cancer screening programmes in Norway. The authors declare no other financial or non-financial competing interests.