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Article History

Received: 20 June 2024

Accepted: 21 October 2025

First Online: 27 November 2025

Declarations

:

: Study 1 was approved by the Office of Research Protections and Integrity at UNC Charlotte under protocol number IRBIS-17-0070. The study title is Omnibus Experiments in Information Processing and Public Opinion, M-Turk Studies , and approval was granted on March 22, 2022. Study 2 was approved by the Office of Research Protections and Integrity at UNC Charlotte under protocol number IRB-23-0815. The study title is Breaking the Stigma: Uncovering Factors Behind Mistrust of Those with Substance Abuse History , and approval was granted on May 9, 2023.

: All participants provided informed consent prior to participation in both studies.

: The authors declare no competing interests.