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Authors
Piercey, Cianna J.
Cameron, Joseph
Ahern, Riley
Packwood, Isabella
Bruning, Carter
Henry, Devin
Ruehrmund, Jesse
Weldon, Katelyn
Smith, Kirsten E.
Karoly, Hollis C.
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Article History
Received: 20 February 2025
Accepted: 16 December 2025
First Online: 2 March 2026
Declarations
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: The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Colorado State University. All individuals enrolled in the study consented to participate.
: Not applicable.
: Within the past three years, KES has served as a paid scientific advisor to the International Plant and Herbal Alliance and the Kratom Coalition and serves as an expert witness in legal cases involving kratom.
